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Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell The amount and type of solvent mix with the fragrance oil dictates whether a perfume is considered a perfume extract, Eau de parfum, Eau de toilette, or Eau de Cologne

It is impossible to describe a perfume according to its components because the formulas are kept secret Even if the formulas are known, the ingredients are often too numerous to provide a useful classification Cognoscenti can, however, generally get a handle on the principal ingredients On the other hand, it is possible to group perfumes into olfactive families and describe them through the notes that appear as they slowly evaporate Perfumes can also be classified according to their concentration [1][2] [3]

[edit] Olfactive families

Fragrances can be classified into several olfactive families, by the themes, or accords, of these fragrances

Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by the scent of one or more types of flowers When only one flower is used, it is called a soliflore (as in Dior's Diorissimo, with lily of the valley)

Chypre: Fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, pachouli, and labdanum This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty by the same name Meaning Cyprus in French, the term alludes to the inspiration behind the original creation

Aldehydic: Fragrances that incorporate the family of chemicals known as aldehydes Chanel No 5 was the first aldehydic perfume (created by the French perfumer Ernest Beaux in 1921) Others include Je Reviens and Arpege Aldehydic perfumes have the characteristic "piquant" note produced by materials like Aldehyde C12 MNA

Fougère: Fragrances built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss This fragrance family is named after Houbigant's Fougère Royale, which pioneered the use of this base Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent

Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents honey, tobacco, wood, and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather

Woody: Fragrances that are dominated by the woody scents, typically of sandalwood and cedar Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes

Orientals or ambers: A large fragrance class featuring the scents of vanilla and animal scents together with flowers and woods Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East

Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of citrus scents Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances

[edit] Fragrance notes

A mixture of alcohol and water is used as the solvent for the aromatics On application, body heat causes the solvent to quickly disperse, leaving the fragrance to evaporate gradually over several hours The rate of evaporation (vapor pressure) and the odor strength of the compound partly determine the tenacity of the compound and determine its perfume note classification

Top notes: Scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume Top notes create the scents that form a person's initial impression of a perfume Because of this, they are very important in the selling of a perfume The scents of this note class are usually described as "fresh," "assertive" or "sharp" The compounds that contribute to top notes are strong in scent, very volatile, and evaporate quickly Citrus and ginger scents are common top notes

Heart notes or Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges after the top notes dissipate The heart note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time Not surprisingly, the scent of heart note compounds is usually more mellow and "rounded" Scents from this note class appear anywhere from 2 minutes to 1 hour after the application of a perfume Lavender and rose scents are typical heart notes Top notes and heart notes are sometimes described together as Head notes

Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears after the departure of the top notes The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume Base notes bring depth and solidness to a perfume Compounds of this class are often the fixatives used to hold and boost the strength of the lighter top and heart notes The compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after the application of the perfume or during the period of perfume dry-down Musk, vetiver and scents of plant resins are commonly used as base notes

[edit] Concentration and composition

Perfumes oils, or the "juice" of perfume composition, are diluted with a suitable solvent to make the perfume more usable This is done because undiluted oils (natural or synthetic) contain high concentrations of volatile components that will likely result in allergic reactions and possibly injury when applied directly to skin or clothing

Although dilutions of the perfume oil can be done using solvents such as jojoba, fractionated coconut oil, and wax, the most common solvents for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water The percent of perfume oil by volume in a perfume is listed as follows:

Perfume extract: 20%-40% aromatic compounds

Eau de parfum: 10-30% aromatic compounds

Eau de toilette: 5-20% aromatic compounds

Eau de cologne: 2-3% aromatic compounds

As the percentage of aromatic compounds decreases, the intensity and longevity of the scent decrease It should be noted that different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes As such, although the oil concentration of a perfume in eau de parfum (EDP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in eau de toilette (EDT) form, the same trends may not necessarily apply to different perfume compositions much less across different perfume houses

Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dillutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether For instance, in order to make the EDT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EDP, the EDT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or less base notes In some cases, words such as "extrême" or "concentrée" appended to frangrance names might indicate completely different frangrances that relates only because of a similar perfume accord An instance to this would be Chanel‘s Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée

[edit] Natural and synthetic aromatics

[edit] Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petit grain, neroli, and orange oils

Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, mimosa, tuberose, as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used Orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery

Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf

Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family

Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise

Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruit

Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine

Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds such as helional

Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers

Lichens: Commonly used lichen includes oakmoss and treemoss thalli

[edit] Animal sources

Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks due to its price and ethical issues

Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the Mongoose

Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver

Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the Sperm Whale Ambergris is commonly referred as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry

Honeycomb: Distilled from the honeycomb of the Honeybee

[edit] Synthetic sources

Synthetic aromatics are created through organic synthesis from various chemical compounds that are obtained from petroleum distillates, pine resins, or other relatively cheap organic feedstock Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be cheaply synthesized from terpenes Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies They include:

International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

Givaudan

Firmenich

Quest International

Takasago

Symrise

Mane SA

CPL

Each of these companies patent several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually

See Aroma compound

[edit] Obtaining natural odorants

Main article: Extraction (fragrance)

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product [4]

All these techniques will to a certain extent, distort the odour of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odour character or renders them odourless

Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether The product of this process is called a "concrete"

Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employ Supercritical CO2 Due to the low heat of process and the relatively unreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odour of the raw material

Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol

Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour

Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems

Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odour is desired

Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible

Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into wax and then extracting the odorous oil with alcohol Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible due to the fact that some fragrant compounds denature through high heat This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods [2]

[edit] Fragrant extracts

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract

Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes

Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid

Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids

Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils

Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid

Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol Tinctures are typically thin liquids [2]

[edit] Composing perfumes

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing

[edit] The Perfumer

The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as "the Nose" due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition The perfumer is effectively an artist who is trained in depth on the concepts of fragrance aesthetics and who is capable of conveying abstract concepts and moods with their fragrance compositions At the most rudimentary level, a perfumer must not only have a keen knowledge of a large variety of fragrance ingredients and their smells, and be able to distinguish each of the fragrance ingredients whether alone or in combination with other frangrances As well, they must know how each ingredient reveals itself through time with other ingredients The job of the perfumer is very similar to that of flavourists, who compose smells and flavourants for many commercial food products

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashi

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