jasmine什么意思中文翻译

jasmine中文意思是茉莉花，也可作为女子英文名，形容甜美纯洁的女孩。

jasmine：英 [ˈdʒæzmɪn] ， 美 [ˈdʒæzmɪn]

双语例句：

I still believed that I would have the jasmine, the chrysanthemum, and the narcissus

但我相信，我还会拥有茉莉，秋菊和水仙。

扩展资料：

茉莉公主

中文名：茉莉公主

英文名：Jasmine（茉莉；茉莉公主）

生日：11月25日

年龄：15 岁

星座：射手座

身份：苏丹王国的公主

头发的颜色：一头乌黑亮丽的长发，喜欢用辫绳扎起来

眼睛的颜色：褐色的眼眸中充满了自信和智慧

性格特点：聪明；独立；有主见；喜欢冒险

好朋友：宠物老虎（西亚虎）乐雅和猴子阿布

公主心语：我不是一只待宰的羔羊！有了明确的人生目标，坚持自己的想法，你的生活由你来做主。

参考资料来源：百度百科-迪士尼公主

食品类词汇：

肉类 (carne)

小羊肉 agnello

牛肉 manzo

小牛肉 vitello

鹌鹑 quaglia sf

鸭 anatra sf

野鸡 fagiano

野禽类 selvaggina sf

排骨 costina sf

腿肉 coscia sf

肉片 fettine di carne sf

肝脏 fegato

舌 lingua sf

兔子 coniglio

肉块 scaloppina sf

鸽子 piccione sm

鸡肉 pollo

火鸡 tacchino

猪肉 maiale

腰子 rene sm

香肠 salame sm

里脊肉 filetto

火腿 prosciutto

鱼类 （pesci）, 贝壳类 （crostacei）

凤尾鱼 acciuga

鳗鱼 anguilla

鱼子酱 caviale

螃蟹 granchio

小虾 gamberetto

海鲜 frutto di mare

龙虾 aragosta

牡蛎 ostrica

生蚝 ostrica cruda

鲈鱼 pesce persico

海胆 riccio di mare

蛤蜊 conchiglia

扇贝 pettine

沙丁鱼 sardina

鲑鱼 salmone

比目鱼 rombo

鳟鱼 trota

鱿鱼 calamaro

墨鱼 seppia

蔬菜类 （verdure）

芦笋 asparago

茄子 melanzana

罗勒 basilico

花菜 broccolo

胡萝卜 carota

芹菜 sedano

蘑菇 fungo

卷心菜 cavolo

洋葱 cipolla

黄瓜 cetriolo

南瓜 zucca

水芹 achillea

生菜沙拉 insalata cruda

葱 porro

菠菜 spinaci

茴香 finocchio

四季豆 fagiolini

莴苣 lattuga

小扁豆 lenticchia

豌豆 pisello

辣椒 peperone

马铃薯 patata

西红柿 pomodoro

动物类：

nanny 雌山羊

nightingale 夜莺

Norway lobster 蝉虾

octopus 章鱼

orangutan 猩猩

ostrich 鸵鸟

otter 水獭

owl 枭,猫头鹰

ox 牛

oyster 牡蛎

pale clouded yellow 纹黄蝶

panther, puma 美洲豹

parakeet 长尾鹦鹉

parrot 鹦鹉

partridge 石鸡, 鹧鸪

peacock 孔雀

pelican 鹈鹕

植物类：

rose 玫瑰花

tulip 郁金香

balsam 凤仙花

canna 美人蕉

lily 百合花

jasmine 茉莉

sweet pea 香豌豆花

sunflower 向日葵

geranium 大竺葵

morning-glory 牵牛花

cosmos 大波斯菊

pansy 三色堇

poppy **花

marigold 金盏花

carnation 麝香石竹

amaryllis 孤挺花

dahlia 大丽花

pink 石竹花

玩具类：

toy 玩具

bauble 小玩意儿

knickknack 小玩意儿

plaything 玩具

game 游戏

rag baby 娃娃玩具

peashooter 玩具枪

water gun 玩具水枪

minicar 玩具车

teddy bear 玩具熊

dollhouse 玩具小屋

LEGO 乐高（著名的积木玩具厂商，基本已经成为积木的代名词了）

家电类：

flashlight 手电筒

fluorescent lamp 日光灯

electric calculator 计算器

tube 真空管

electric fan 电风扇

dictaphone, dictating machine 录音机

tape recorder 磁带

television 电视机

electric iron 电熨斗

electric foot warmer 暖脚器

electric shaver 电动剃须刀

electric cooker 电饭锅

electric heater 电暖气

electric vacuum cleaner 吸尘器

bulb 电灯泡

electronic oven 电烤箱

radio 收音机

microphone 麦克风

loud-speaker 扩音机

日常生活用品：

cosmetics 化妆用品

stationery 文具

fabrics 纺织品

dry goods 服装

ready-made clothes, off-the-peg, ready-to-wear 成衣,现成服装

men's wear 男服

women's wear 女服

underwear 内衣裤

sports goods, athletic equipment 体育用品

sundries 零星小物

toilet articles 盥洗用品

towel 毛巾

handkerchief 手帕

toilet soap 香皂

shampoo 洗发香波

soap 肥皂

laundry soap 洗衣皂

soap powder 肥皂粉

soap flakes 皂片

medicated soap 药皂

detergent 洗衣粉

cleanser 去污粉

tooth paste 牙膏

tooth brush 牙刷

toilet mirror 梳妆镜

hair brush 发刷

hair vaseline 发蜡

cosmetics 化妆品

lipstic 口红, 唇膏

face powder 粉

compact 粉盒

powder puff 粉扑

cold cream 香脂

vanishing cream 雪花膏

perfume, scent 香水

perfume spray 香水喷子

coat hanger 挂衣架

clothes-peg, clothes pin 晒衣夹

string bag, net bag 网兜

thermos bottle 热水瓶

一、香薰精油的作用

1、可帮助身体恢复机能

多数的植物精油都是药用植物都具有疗效，能帮助身体达到平衡、提升自愈能力。

2、对心灵层面有帮助

精油可促使脑内啡形成，对神经系统产生影响，改善人们思考模式、情绪状态及抒解压力。

3、不会对身体造成负担

精油是由植物取得，身体会自然代谢，只要使用得当，不会对身体造成负担，但是人工香氛就会残留在体内，严重还会使身体产生病变。

二、不同植物精油的作用

1、玫瑰：提升精神，愉悦心情，调节月经周期，提高性欲。

2、薰衣草：能净化安抚神经，镇静效果，降血压，治失眠，创伤。

3、茉莉：在沮丧时是最有效的处方，淡化妊娠纹和疤痕。

4、桂花：消除沮丧心情绪，调价安抚作用，有益于伤口，消肿。

5、海风、；采集海生藻类植物及海岩综合而成，带来海洋气息。

三、用法

精油的使用方法很多：直接吸闻法、熏香法、熏蒸法、沐浴法、按摩法、湿敷法、护肤法。

1、直接吸闻法　

最简单的方法，就是将它滴在装满热水的杯子里，顿时怡人的香味立即充满整个屋子。这样让香气散溢在室内，我们称为“香薰蒸气”。香薰精油原本就是挥发性高的油质，所以只要打开瓶盖，香味就会四散。在鼻塞的时候，只要直接将薄荷香薰精油的瓶盖打开，置于身旁，就可舒缓鼻塞的症状。

2、熏香法　

熏香是指将精油滴加到扩香工具上，让精油的香氛扩散到每个角落，以达到杀菌、净化空气效果的一种精油使用方法。同时，精油分子也可清洁和净化呼吸系统，缓解肺部不适。

3、熏蒸法　

在水盆中加入热水，滴入1-3滴香薰精油，让冒起的蒸气薰拂脸部（需先卸妆并洗脸），为了让蒸气不流散，可以用大毛巾盖住整个头部。大概持续10分钟左右，让香薰精油的成分可以深入肌肤。这个方式可以畅通呼吸道，对于干咳、流涕都有很好的效果。

4、沐浴法　

将香薰精油滴在比体温稍高的洗澡水里，让身体浸泡一下，这叫做“香薰泡澡”。除了全身浸泡外，在工作或做家事时，也可以偷闲浸泡一下手或脚，让心情更舒畅。所选择的香薰精油，最好适合当时的身心状态，同时再加上按摩，会有更好的放松效果。

5、按摩法　按摩可促使精油在最短的时间内被皮肤吸收，对皮肤有极佳的保养作用，并可加速血液循环，达到放松肌肉、舒缓心情的效果。如果搭配香薰精油一起进行，就是所谓的“香薰按摩”。

面部按摩：调油比例1%，即在10 毫升基础油中加入2-3 滴单方精油。

身体按摩：调油比例25%，即10 毫升基础油中加入5-8 滴单方精油。

注 意：敏感皮肤使用前需皮试。

6、湿敷法　

根据各种香薰精油的功效，除了以按摩油直接涂抹在皮肤上，精油湿敷也是一种常见的精油使用方法，将棉纱布放入含精油的冷水或热水中浸湿，敷于患处，可帮助精油深层渗透，改善多种身体问题。

热敷是种很好的香薰疗法，不但可以温热疲惫的身躯，也能舒缓身心的紧张。用毛巾热敷，可以让血管扩张，皮肤的吸收功能变佳，对于肩膀疾痛、腰痛、头痛、生理痛等各种疼痛，具有镇痛效果的薰衣草、罗马洋甘菊、天竺葵。

7护肤法

在常用的植物性护肤品中，适当添加精油，因为精油分子极其微小，能够迅速渗入表皮层，进入体内循环。添加精油后，护肤品更易吸收。例如添加了玫瑰精油后，即使是普通的美白产品，也能很快看到明显效果。在补水、抗皱和紧致肌肤方面，精油也有着令人惊叹的效果。

扩展资料：

使用精油的注意事项

1不可直接使用（薰衣草、茶树可以小剂量、小面积的直接使用在皮肤上）

由于单方精油浓度很高，除非有专人指导下，否则只有「熏衣草、茶树」是可以直接使用的精油，直接以纯精油涂抹身体，易造成剂量过高或过于刺激皮肤。

2剂量

使用的剂量不可超过5%。大体而言，一般的10ml精油可滴出约200d，因此5%的浓度约10d。如果要调配基础油，10ml基础油滴入少于10滴精油即是安全剂量。

3调配

使用厂商调配好的复方精油，就比较没有调配上的问题，若喜欢自行调配者，请注意每次不可超过3种精油，且使用复方比单方安全。

4过敏测试

过敏体质的人，必定要做过敏测试。

5避免混淆

精油有国外进口的，也有国产的，故有些名称并不相同，在购买使用上，认清精油的英文或学名，较不容易弄错。

6避免误食

小心存放，勿让孩童误食

7注意保存

纯精油怕光、怕高温氧化，要选用深瓶子盛装，最好放在恒温三十度以下的阴暗处

8避免光敏感

许多精油含有呋喃香豆素，会引起光敏反应，使用于脸部后数小时内不可接受日晒以免皮肤变黑。如：佛手柑、柠檬、莱姆、欧白芷等

9不可取代医疗

精油虽有很好的疗效，对于身心平衡也很有帮助，不过若有急症仍旧要就医，以芳香疗法来辅助医学，当成日常保健、解除慢性病痛、改善不良精油的状态的工具是较安全的使用心态。

精油使用小贴士：

精油的价位很多种。价格通常会受很多因素的影响，如丰收情况，有些国家的精油要比其他国家精油贵，绝大多数有机的精油要比其他精油昂贵。

如果患有呼吸困难或其他及其严重的病症，不要自己尝试通过芳疗治疗，而是应该去看医生。

不要购买盛装在透明玻璃容器中的精油，这些容器会将精油暴露在阳光下，最终会影响精油的原有属性。

塑料的容器会污染芳疗精油，精油不应该储存在塑料容器中。

当你在本地购买精油时，不要购买容器上布满灰尘的精油，这时精油存放太久的一种标志。

参考资料来源：百度百科-香薰精油

应该是

Jasmine

GINGER吧？！貌似是个美国的牌子

essence

of

beauty是指化妆品之类的泛指

essence是精华液的意思

颜色:

blue蓝色

purple紫色

black黑色

white白色

indigo青色

brown棕色

green绿色

pink粉红色

red红色

orange橙色

silver银色

yellow**

cofffee咖啡色

衣物:

suit and tie 西装和领带

casual dress 非正式服装

jeans 牛仔服

T-shirt T恤衫

pullover 套头毛衣

sweater 运动衫 套头衫

dress 女服,童装

vest 背心 内衣

skirt 裙子

jacket 夹克

coat 外套

tailcoat 燕尾服

tuxedo 无尾礼服

pants 裤子(美) trousers (英)

Shorts 短裤

cardigan 领开口的羊毛衫

Track Suit 运动外套

hoody 头巾

garment 外衣

uniform 制服

blouse 宽松的上衣

Swimwear 游泳衣

hat 有檐的帽子

cap 帽子

attire 服装

Sandals 便鞋

Boots 靴子

blazer 颜色鲜明的运动夹克

maternity 孕妇装

sleepwear 睡衣

robes 长袍

handbag 手提包

socks 袜子

食物:

F--fish,鱼french fries,炸薯条

J---jam,果酱juice果汁,jello,果冻

Q---Quiche(在意大利面食里,放有蛋,芝士或是菜的食物)

U--Unsweetened Chocolate (不加糖巧克力)

X、

Y---yam红薯, yogurt酸奶

Z--ziti(一种意大利面食物 )

职业:

doctor医生,nurse护士,driver司机,swimmer游泳者,

reporter记者,footballer足球运动员,MBA篮球运动员,dancer舞蹈家,photographer摄影师,

steward服务员,teacher教师,air steward空中**, Movement 运动者,professor教授,cook厨师,

agent代理人，Translators翻译家，singer歌唱家，

Scientists 科学家，Writer 作家

数字:

one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen twenty twenty-one twenty-two twenty-three twenty-four twenty-five twenty-six twenty-seven twenty-eight twenty-nine thirty thirty-one thirty-two thirty-three thirty-four thirty-five thirty-six thirty-seven thirty-eight thirty-nine forty forty-one forty-two forty-three forty-four forty-five forty-six forty-seven forty-eight forty-nine fifty

动物:

cat

duck

bird

chick

swan

rabbit

fox

squirrel

rat

pig

交通工具:

car 小汽车

truck 卡车

jeep 吉普车

train 火车

plane 飞机

ship 轮船

boat 小船

bus 公共汽

蔬菜水果:

celery 芹菜

Chinese white cabbage 白菜

lettuce生菜

spinach菠菜

bitter gourd苦瓜

cucumber黄瓜

marrow西葫芦

pumpkin南瓜

winter melon冬瓜

potato土豆

sweet potato红薯

carrot胡萝卜

aubergine茄子

tomato西红柿

mushroom蘑菇

edible tree fungus木耳

tremella银耳

cherry樱桃

coconut椰子

grape葡萄

grapefruit西柚

kiwi fruit猕猴桃

lemon柠檬

longan龙眼

lychee荔枝

mango芒果

mangosteen山竹

mandarin orange柑橘

olive橄榄

peach桃

pear梨

plum李子

Hami melon哈密瓜

melon甜瓜

papaya木瓜

honeydew melon蜜瓜

pineapple菠萝

sugarcane甘蔗

strawberry草莓

天气:

1 weather

2 wea

Examples:

1 天气怎么样？

What's the weather like

2 炎热天气一直持续到十月。

The hot weather extended into October

3 寒冷的天气抑制了植物的生长。

Cold weather constrains the plant's growth

4 因为天气不好，他们的旅行计划取消了。

Their travel plan was cancelled because of the bad weather

5 昨天天气普遍晴朗。

Fair weather was the rule yesterday

6 阴沉的天气让我们都感到压抑。

We were all depressed by the dismal weather

7 天气预报说明天是晴天。

The weather forecast says it will be sunny tomorrow

8 他们在恶劣的天气条件下登上了山的顶峰。

They climbed up the last part of the mountain in formidable weather conditions

暴风雨天气

wild weather

天气雷达

weather radar

天气过程

weather process

天气谚语

weather lore

天气报告

weather advisory

坏天气

villainous weather

坏天气

vile weather

寒冷天气

shivery weather

好天气

propitious weather

天气weather

晴天sunshine fine

多云cloudy

阴天overcast sky cloudy sky

小雨flurry spit sprinkle

中雨middle rain

大雨drencher ding-on downfall soak spate

暴雨rainstorm

阵风flatus flurry gust

微风breeze breath breathing breezee gentle breeze

台风typhoon

龙卷风cyclone tornado

雾brume fog mist reek

雪grue sonw

霜frost hoarfrost

冰雹hail hailstone

生活用品: articles for daily use, daily goods, living goods

学习用品: learning goods, articles for learning, articles for studying, learning tools, learning instrument

Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils and aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents used to give the human body, objects, and living spaces a pleasant smell The amount and type of solvent mix with the fragrance oil dictates whether a perfume is considered a perfume extract, Eau de parfum, Eau de toilette, or Eau de Cologne

It is impossible to describe a perfume according to its components because the formulas are kept secret Even if the formulas are known, the ingredients are often too numerous to provide a useful classification Cognoscenti can, however, generally get a handle on the principal ingredients On the other hand, it is possible to group perfumes into olfactive families and describe them through the notes that appear as they slowly evaporate Perfumes can also be classified according to their concentration [1][2] [3]

[edit] Olfactive families

Fragrances can be classified into several olfactive families, by the themes, or accords, of these fragrances

Floral: Fragrances that are dominated by the scent of one or more types of flowers When only one flower is used, it is called a soliflore (as in Dior's Diorissimo, with lily of the valley)

Chypre: Fragrances built on a similar accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, pachouli, and labdanum This family of fragrances is named after a perfume by François Coty by the same name Meaning Cyprus in French, the term alludes to the inspiration behind the original creation

Aldehydic: Fragrances that incorporate the family of chemicals known as aldehydes Chanel No 5 was the first aldehydic perfume (created by the French perfumer Ernest Beaux in 1921) Others include Je Reviens and Arpege Aldehydic perfumes have the characteristic "piquant" note produced by materials like Aldehyde C12 MNA

Fougère: Fragrances built on a base of lavender, coumarin and oakmoss This fragrance family is named after Houbigant's Fougère Royale, which pioneered the use of this base Many men's fragrances belong to this family of fragrances, which is characterized by its sharp herbaceous and woody scent

Leather: A family of fragrances which features the scents honey, tobacco, wood, and wood tars in its middle or base notes and a scent that alludes to leather

Woody: Fragrances that are dominated by the woody scents, typically of sandalwood and cedar Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is commonly found in these perfumes

Orientals or ambers: A large fragrance class featuring the scents of vanilla and animal scents together with flowers and woods Can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, which bring to mind Victorian era imagery of the Middle East and Far East

Citrus: An old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of citrus scents Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of primarily citrus fragrances

[edit] Fragrance notes

A mixture of alcohol and water is used as the solvent for the aromatics On application, body heat causes the solvent to quickly disperse, leaving the fragrance to evaporate gradually over several hours The rate of evaporation (vapor pressure) and the odor strength of the compound partly determine the tenacity of the compound and determine its perfume note classification

Top notes: Scents that are perceived immediately on application of a perfume Top notes create the scents that form a person's initial impression of a perfume Because of this, they are very important in the selling of a perfume The scents of this note class are usually described as "fresh," "assertive" or "sharp" The compounds that contribute to top notes are strong in scent, very volatile, and evaporate quickly Citrus and ginger scents are common top notes

Heart notes or Middle notes: The scent of a perfume that emerges after the top notes dissipate The heart note compounds form the "heart" or main body of a perfume and act to mask the often unpleasant initial impression of base notes, which become more pleasant with time Not surprisingly, the scent of heart note compounds is usually more mellow and "rounded" Scents from this note class appear anywhere from 2 minutes to 1 hour after the application of a perfume Lavender and rose scents are typical heart notes Top notes and heart notes are sometimes described together as Head notes

Base notes: The scent of a perfume that appears after the departure of the top notes The base and middle notes together are the main theme of a perfume Base notes bring depth and solidness to a perfume Compounds of this class are often the fixatives used to hold and boost the strength of the lighter top and heart notes The compounds of this class of scents are typically rich and "deep" and are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after the application of the perfume or during the period of perfume dry-down Musk, vetiver and scents of plant resins are commonly used as base notes

[edit] Concentration and composition

Perfumes oils, or the "juice" of perfume composition, are diluted with a suitable solvent to make the perfume more usable This is done because undiluted oils (natural or synthetic) contain high concentrations of volatile components that will likely result in allergic reactions and possibly injury when applied directly to skin or clothing

Although dilutions of the perfume oil can be done using solvents such as jojoba, fractionated coconut oil, and wax, the most common solvents for perfume oil dilution is ethanol or a mixture of ethanol and water The percent of perfume oil by volume in a perfume is listed as follows:

Perfume extract: 20%-40% aromatic compounds

Eau de parfum: 10-30% aromatic compounds

Eau de toilette: 5-20% aromatic compounds

Eau de cologne: 2-3% aromatic compounds

As the percentage of aromatic compounds decreases, the intensity and longevity of the scent decrease It should be noted that different perfumeries or perfume houses assign different amounts of oils to each of their perfumes As such, although the oil concentration of a perfume in eau de parfum (EDP) dilution will necessarily be higher than the same perfume in eau de toilette (EDT) form, the same trends may not necessarily apply to different perfume compositions much less across different perfume houses

Furthermore, some fragrances with the same product name but having a different concentration name may not only differ in their dillutions, but actually use different perfume oil mixtures altogether For instance, in order to make the EDT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher than its EDP, the EDT oil may be "tweaked" to contain slightly more top notes or less base notes In some cases, words such as "extrême" or "concentrée" appended to frangrance names might indicate completely different frangrances that relates only because of a similar perfume accord An instance to this would be Chanel‘s Pour Monsieur and Pour Monsieur Concentrée

[edit] Natural and synthetic aromatics

[edit] Plant sources

Plants have long been used in perfumery as a source of essential oils and aroma compounds These aromatics are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants as protection against herbivores, infections, as well as to attract pollinators Plants are by far the largest source of fragrant compounds used in perfumery The sources of these compounds may be derived from various parts of a plant A plant can offer more than one source of aromatics, for instance the aerial portions and seeds of coriander have remarkably different odors from each other Orange leaves, blossoms, and fruit zest are the respective sources of petit grain, neroli, and orange oils

Flowers and blossoms: Undoubtedly the largest source of aromatics Includes the flowers of several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, mimosa, tuberose, as well as the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees Although not traditionally thought of as a flower, the unopened flower buds of the clove are also commonly used Orchid flowers are not commercially used to produce essential oils or absolutes, except in the case of vanilla, an orchid, which must be pollinated first and made into seed pods before use in perfumery

Leaves and twigs: Commonly used for perfumery are lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves Sometimes leaves are valued for the "green" smell they bring to perfumes, examples of this include hay and tomato leaf

Roots, rhizomes and bulbs: Commonly used terrestrial portions in perfumery include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, various rhizomes of the ginger family

Seeds: Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise

Fruits: Fresh fruits such as apples, strawberries, cherries unfortunately do not yield the expected odors when extracted; if such fragrance notes are found in a perfume, they are synthetic Notable exceptions include litsea cubeba, vanilla, and juniper berry The most commonly used fruits yield their aromatics from the rind; they include citrus such as oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruit

Woods: Highly important in providing the base notes to a perfume, wood oils and distillates are indispensable in perfumery Commonly used woods include sandalwood, rosewood, agarwood, birch, cedar, juniper, and pine

Bark: Commonly used barks includes cinnamon and cascarilla The fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is also used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds such as helional

Resins: Valued since antiquity, resins have been widely used in incense and perfumery Highly fragrant and antiseptic resins and resin-containing perfumes have been used by many cultures as medicines for a large variety of ailments Commonly used resins in perfumery include labdanum, frankincense/olibanum, myrrh, Peru balsam, gum benzoin Pine and fir resins are a particularly valued source of terpenes used in the organic synthesis of many other synthetic or naturally occurring aromatic compounds Some of what is called amber and copal in perfumery today is the resinous secretion of fossil conifers

Lichens: Commonly used lichen includes oakmoss and treemoss thalli

[edit] Animal sources

Musk: Originally derived from the musk sacs from the Asian musk deer, it has now been replaced by the use of synthetic musks due to its price and ethical issues

Civet: Also called Civet Musk, this is obtained from the odorous sacs of the civets, animals in the family Viverridae, related to the Mongoose

Castoreum: Obtained from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver

Ambergris: Lumps of oxidized fatty compounds, whose precursors were secreted and expelled by the Sperm Whale Ambergris is commonly referred as "amber" in perfumery and should not be confused with yellow amber, which is used in jewelry

Honeycomb: Distilled from the honeycomb of the Honeybee

[edit] Synthetic sources

Synthetic aromatics are created through organic synthesis from various chemical compounds that are obtained from petroleum distillates, pine resins, or other relatively cheap organic feedstock Synthetics can provide fragrances which are not found in nature For instance, Calone, a compound of synthetic origin, imparts a fresh ozonous metallic marine scent that is widely used in contemporary perfumes Synthetic aromatics are often used as an alternate source of compounds that are not easily obtained from natural sources For example, linalool and coumarin are both naturally occurring compounds that can be cheaply synthesized from terpenes Orchid scents (typically salicylates) are usually not obtained directly from the plant itself but are instead synthetically created to match the fragrant compounds found in various orchids

The majority of the world's synthetic aromatics are created by relatively few companies They include:

International Flavors and Fragrances (IFF)

Givaudan

Firmenich

Quest International

Takasago

Symrise

Mane SA

CPL

Each of these companies patent several processes for the production of aromatic synthetics annually

See Aroma compound

[edit] Obtaining natural odorants

Main article: Extraction (fragrance)

Before perfumes can be composed, the odorants used in various perfume compositions must first be obtained Synthetic odorants are produced through organic synthesis and purified Odorants from natural sources require the use of various methods to extract the aromatics from the raw materials The results of the extraction are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of waxes in the extracted product [4]

All these techniques will to a certain extent, distort the odour of the aromatic compounds obtained from the raw materials This is due to the use of heat, harsh solvents, or through exposure to oxygen in the extraction process which will denature the aromatic compounds, which either change their odour character or renders them odourless

Maceration/Solvent extraction: The most used and economically important technique for extracting aromatics in the modern perfume industry Raw materials are submerged in a solvent that can dissolve the desired aromatic compounds Maceration lasts anywhere from hours to months Fragrant compounds for woody and fibrous plant materials are often obtained in this manner as are all aromatics from animal sources The technique can also be used to extract odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat Commonly used solvents for maceration/solvent extraction include hexane, and dimethyl ether The product of this process is called a "concrete"

Supercritical fluid extraction: A relatively new technique for extracting fragrant compounds from a raw material, which often employ Supercritical CO2 Due to the low heat of process and the relatively unreactive solvent used in the extraction, the fragrant compounds derived often closely resemble the original odour of the raw material

Ethanol extraction: A type of solvent extraction used to extract fragrant compounds directly from dry raw materials, as well as the impure oily compounds materials resulting from solvent extraction or enfleurage Ethanol extraction is not used to extract fragrance from fresh plant materials since these contain large quantities of water, which will also be extracted into the ethanol

Distillation: A common technique for obtaining aromatic compounds from plants, such as orange blossoms and roses The raw material is heated and the fragrant compounds are re-collected through condensation of the distilled vapour

Steam distillation: Steam from boiling water is passed through the raw material, which drives out their volatile fragrant compounds The condensate from distillation are settled in a Florentine flask This allows for the easy separation of the fragrant oils from the water The water collected from the condensate, which retains some of the fragrant compounds and oils from the raw material is called hydrosol and sometimes sold This is most commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems

Dry/destructive distillation: The raw materials are directly heated in a still without a carrier solvent such as water Fragrant compounds that are released from the raw material by the high heat often undergo anhydrous pyrolysis, which results in the formation of different fragrant compounds, and thus different fragrant notes This method is used to obtain fragrant compounds from fossil amber and fragrant woods where an intentional "burned" or "toasted" odour is desired

Expression: Raw material is squeezed or compressed and the oils are collected Of all raw materials, only the fragrant oils from the peels of fruits in the citrus family are extracted in this manner since the oil is present in large enough quantities as to make this extraction method economically feasible

Enfleurage: Absorption of aroma materials into wax and then extracting the odorous oil with alcohol Extraction by enfleurage was commonly used when distillation was not possible due to the fact that some fragrant compounds denature through high heat This technique is not commonly used in the present day industry due to its prohibitive cost and the existence of more efficient and effective extraction methods [2]

[edit] Fragrant extracts

Although fragrant extracts are known to the general public as the generic term "essential oils", a more specific language is used in the fragrance industry to describe the source, purity, and technique used to obtain a particular fragrant extract

Of these extracts, only absolutes, essential oils, and tinctures are directly used to formulate perfumes

Absolute: Fragrant materials that are purified from a pommade or concrete by soaking them in ethanol By using a slightly hydrophilic compound such as ethanol, most of the fragrant compounds from the waxy source materials can be extracted without dissolving any of the fragrantless waxy molecules Absolutes are usually found in the form of an oily liquid

Concrete: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from raw materials through solvent extraction using volatile hydrocarbons Concretes usually contain a large amount of wax due to the ease in which the solvents dissolve various hydrophobic compounds As such concretes are usually further purified through distillation or ethanol based solvent extraction Concretes are typically either waxy or resinous solids or thick oily liquids

Essential oil: Fragrant materials that have been extracted from a source material directly through distillation or expression and obtained in the form of an oily liquid Oils extracted through expression are sometimes called expression oils

Pomade: A fragrant mass of solid fat created from the enfleurage process, in which odorous compounds in raw materials are adsorbed into animal fats Pommades are found in the form of an oily and sticky solid

Tincture: Fragrant materials produced by directly soaking and infusing raw materials in ethanol Tinctures are typically thin liquids [2]

[edit] Composing perfumes

Perfume compositions are an important part of many industries ranging from the luxury goods sectors, food services industries, to manufacturers of various household chemicals The purpose of using perfume or fragrance compositions in these industries is to affect customers through their sense of smell and entice them into purchasing the perfume or perfumed product As such there is significant interest in producing a perfume formulation that people will find aesthetically pleasing

[edit] The Perfumer

The job of composing perfumes that will sell is left up to an expert on perfume composition or known in the fragrance industry as the perfumer They are also sometimes referred to affectionately as "the Nose" due to their fine sense of smell and skill in smell composition The perfumer is effectively an artist who is trained in depth on the concepts of fragrance aesthetics and who is capable of conveying abstract concepts and moods with their fragrance compositions At the most rudimentary level, a perfumer must not only have a keen knowledge of a large variety of fragrance ingredients and their smells, and be able to distinguish each of the fragrance ingredients whether alone or in combination with other frangrances As well, they must know how each ingredient reveals itself through time with other ingredients The job of the perfumer is very similar to that of flavourists, who compose smells and flavourants for many commercial food products

The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer The customers to the perfumer or their employers, are typically fashi

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